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**1. History and Advancements in Geotechnical Engineering:**

– Historical use of soil for various purposes like flood control, irrigation, and building foundations.
– Development of soil design from empirical to scientific basis over centuries.
– Key advancements in soil mechanics by notable figures like Charles Coulomb, Henry Darcy, and Karl von Terzaghi.
– Contributions of Joseph Boussinesq, William Rankine, Maurice Biot, Donald Taylor, and others to stress distribution and soil mechanics theories.
– Establishment of critical state soil mechanics by Roscoe, Schofield, and Wroth in 1958.

**2. Geotechnical Investigation and Roles of Geotechnical Engineers:**

– Purpose of geotechnical investigations in designing earthworks, foundations, tunnels, and retaining structures.
– Methods like surface and subsurface exploration, geophysical surveys, and soil sampling for data collection.
– Responsibilities of geotechnical engineers in determining soil properties, conducting investigations, and designing structures based on soil characteristics.
– Utilization of geotechnical centrifuge modeling for testing physical scale models of geotechnical problems.

**3. Foundation Design and Earthworks in Geotechnical Engineering:**

– Foundation design principles for load transmission and considerations like bearing capacity, settlement, and ground movement.
– Planning and execution of earthworks by geotechnical engineers.
– Ground improvement methods to enhance load-bearing capacity and slope stabilization techniques.
– Use of numerical methods for analyzing complex slope stability.

**4. Geosynthetics in Civil and Geotechnical Engineering:**

– Definition and functions of geosynthetics like drainage, filtration, and reinforcement.
– Applications in roads, railroads, dams, and coastal engineering for enhancing soil stiffness and strength.
– Different forms and materials of geosynthetics available in the market.

**5. Observational Method and Offshore Geotechnical Engineering:**

– Description and benefits of the observational method for construction control and monitoring.
– Application in projects where design alterations are possible during construction.
– Focus on offshore geotechnical engineering for structures in the sea.
– Differences between onshore and offshore geotechnical engineering in terms of challenges and considerations.